It is widely known that numerous paramilitary groups took part in Yugoslav wars as essential parts of the conflict. Breakaway states like Croatia and Bosnia at first relied solely on paramilitary formations for waging a war as they had no standing army once they declared their independence. The breakaway Serb states found themselves in a peculiar position, while the YPA certainly did not fight against the forces of Serbian Krajina it sought to incorporate it back into Yugoslavia together with Croatia, while the Croatian Serbs wanted unification with Serbia separate from Croatia. As many figureheads in Serbian leadership at the time shared the vision with Leaders of Krajina formation of paramilitary groups started in order to support the Krajina’s war effort.  On March 16, Milošević promised "preparations of appropriate units capable of defending interests of Serbia and Serb people outside Serbia" in a closed session with Serbian municipal presidents. The order of creating such a unit was given to Jovica Stanišić, head of the RDB (Resor Državne Bezbednosti-Department for State security), an agency in the ministry of internal affairs Serbia. To cut any ties with Belgrade the very ministry had no involvement in the creation of the unit and task was carried out by the RDB independently. Unit was armed with weaponry from RDB which featured modern assault rifles but also WW2 era weaponry, men were transported to Knin where they were put under command of Franko Simatović and Dragan Vasiljević (Alias Kapetan Dragan). Unit would later become known as Knindže and they would proceed to fight in Croatia until the end of the war in 1995. Second crucial paramilitary organization which fought in Croatia and later Bosnia was Serbian Volunteer Guard led by Željko Ražnatović “Arkan”. Arkan’s tigers, as the unit will later become known as, was larger and better equipped than the Knindže, numbering around 10 000 men and operating heavy machinery such as T-55 main battle tanks and Praga mobile anti-aircraft artillery. The tigers saw their first action in the battle of Borovo Selo and would later participate in the battles of Vukovar and later Bjeljina in Bosnia. In 1994 it participated in operation “Pauk” (spider) a joint operation of Krajina and Srpska to assist the fledging of the Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia, a Serb-allied Muslim entity fighting against the central Bosnian government. In 1995 the war headed south for the Serbs, Serbian Krajina was overrun by the Croatian forces in operation “Storm” and most of Serbian population of Croatia was expelled. NATO was carrying out bombing runs on the key military facilities of Republic of Srpska and joint Bosniak-Croat offensive was nearing the countries capital Banja Luka, there the guard at assisted the Army of Republika Srpska in re-establishing the defense Sana river. As the war ended the members of the both units fled to FR Yugoslavia where another ethnic conflict, in Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, was starting to flare up. To help in the fight with the Albanian insurgency in the southern province, the RDB formed a new military unit, Jedinica Specijalnih Operacija / Unit for Special Operations (JSO), composed of the fighters from the paramilitary groups which retreated from Bosnia and Croatia. The unit was one amongst the most elite in the entire FR Yugoslavia, no longer did it operate obsolete weapons but was issued the best equipment that Serbia had at the time. Members of the JSO were also seen wearing uniforms that were quite different from the rest of the armed forces of Yugoslavia. While the Yugoslav army was issued M-93 Oakleaf patterned uniforms the JSO wore domestically produced copies of US M-81 woodland uniforms alongside woodland inspired winter variants that were also domestically produced, although some sources claim that the fabric was obtained from Hungary. For winter operations JSO also had locally produced copies of German schneetarn pattern, this uniforms would be later issued to the Serbian gendarmerie. As for the heavier equipment the Special unit operated vide variety of armored vehicles such as M-80 BVP and M-86 BOV but among them were also American Hummers purchased from Cyprus, the unit also had two Mi-24V attack helicopters in their arsenal that were most likely acquired from black market. JSO numbered 200 active operatives and 600 in reserve, its headquarters was in the ex-YPA base in Kula and its commander was Franko Simatović (1996-1998) and Milorad Ulemek Legija (1998-2001) As the war in Kosovo grew in scale in 1998 the JSO was deployed and took part in some key battles in the conflict. One of their first operations was carried out in the March of 1998 where the JSO led a successful assault on the KLA commander Adem Jashari's hideout in Prekaz. The assault was planned and coordinated together with the Special Anti-Terrorist Unit of the police. In May-July 1998, the Mi-24V helicopters of the JSO took part in a joint effort to push KLA out of Kijevo, a strategic village on the Priština-Peć road. The Serbian interior ministry took control over Kijevo on 4 July. Later in 1999, JSO engaged in fierce battles against the KLA terrorists in and around the city of Peć. When the NATO aggression started, due to the alliance’s overwhelming and unchallenged air superiority the unit had to ground its helicopters but the ground operations resumed. After the war ended and the JSO pulled out of Kosovo just like the rest of the Yugoslav forces as it was agreed to in Kumanovo agreement. During the insurgency in Preševo valley in 2001, JSO had an advanced department located in Vranje. The unit was not at the site of the conflict in Preševo ​​or Bujanovac because it was used by the command of the Joint Security Forces (JSB) in special cases such as the Unblockade of Oraovice. In the year 2000 an American backed coup took down the socialist government in Belgrade on 5th october replacing it with democratic parties with western outlook. Subsequently the new leadership started implementing changes in the ruling structure of the government, certain changes that eventually put the existence of JSO in question, in response the unit organized rebellion. The rebellion of the Special Operations Unit lasted from November 9 to 17, 2001, when the JSO blocked the entrances to base in Kula and issued demands for the dismissal of the new Minister of Internal Affairs, the head of the Department of State Security and her deputy, and then with the use of combat vehicles and weapons, they blocked the highway near Vrbas and in the following days also near Belgrade. The alleged reason for the rebellion was the arrest of the Banović brothers on November 8 at the market in Obrenovac, accused of war crimes by the Hague Tribunal. The rebellion resulted in the replacements of the heads of the Department of State Security. On the 12th of March 2003 Yugoslav prime minister dr Zoran Đinđić was assassinated. On the 25th of March the same year the Special Unit was officially disbanded due to the suspicion that the part of the unit took part in the assassination, later it was proven right and many former members of the unit were arrested and convicted.

Serbian Unit For Special Operations (JSO)

Shoe with heightened bootleg was a combat boot designed and manufactured in Yugoslavia for the Yugoslav People’s Army (YPA). The boot was to replace the former M-55 model of combat boot and entered service in early 70s They earned a nickname pešadinke (infantryman’s boots) and prašinarke (duster boots). These boots are inspired and most similar to Czechoslovakian vz. 60 (vzor 1960) worn by ČSLA (Česko-Slovenská Lidová Armáda - Czechoslovakian People's Army) from 1960s to 1970s as well as to Polish wz. 58 (wzór 1958) combat boots worn by LWP (Ludowe Wojsko Polskie - Polish People's Army, and later also briefly by Polish Army) from 1950s until 1990s. Boots were manufactured from 1971 to 2004 by multiple factories, most notably Borac (literally; Fighter) from town of Travnik in SRBIH (Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina) which carried the most production (around half altogether), then Kombinat (Combined factory) from town of Peć in Kosovo and factory Limka from town of Prijepolje in SRS (Socialist Republic of Serbia). After the fall of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia continued to make them, in different factories now, such as such as Gepard from city of Novi Sad, Sandra from Požarevac, Mile Dragić from Zrenjanin, Borovo Boreli from Sombor, D&S from city of Beograd, Progres, and others, because most of the previous ones were now in breakaway regions and states.  In contrast to their mentioned predecessor (which were made out of smooth calfskin leather) boots were also made exclusively from highly durable, double layer of genuine leather, however, not a calfskin anymore, but pig leather instead, in combination with either three or four layers of glued, stitched and screw reinforced sole (twin wooden at the upper part with a single/double rubber one), depending on model, featuring twin chrome plated aluminum buckles at the side, either ten or twelve eyelets and bolted with either eleven (later models) or nineteen (earlier models) reinforcement screws underneath the sole, also depending on the model. They feature a thin cotton lining between two layers of leather as well as partially inside. The boots came in 3 variants for the army and there was one more for the police (Milicija) Variant 1971For YPA, these boots existed in three main models. The first one was in production for eight years; from 1971 until 1979 and it is visually easily recognizable by combination of twelve holes for laces (six by six), nineteen reinforcement screws on four layers of sole and slightly different buckles compared to later ones (thinner, somewhat smaller and square from all sides) which were sewn to the boot inside, between the two layers of leather (although models from 1977 onwards already switched to newer buckles).  Variant 1979The second model was just a short lived transition model produced for only three years; from 1979 until 1982, due to which today it is relatively rare (hard to find), because the mentioned model was, as already stated, actually just a gap between the first and third one, since the production facilities firstly had to spend the existing stock of old nineteen reinforcement screw soles before they could continue with new eleven screw ones. The mentioned model is recognizable by combination of ten holes for laces (the upper two were removed; so five by five now), different buckles (larger, thicker and rounded on back side) which were now sewn directly onto the outside part of the leather, making them much firmer than previous. Ironically enough, although being just a stopgap short lived model, this was probably the best of all three models, due to its combination of ten holes for laces and nineteen screws on soles, it did not share previously mentioned defect with hindering the ankle with the first model (due to twelve holes), nor even the greater one with sole reliability (due to only eleven screws), which troubled the last one. Variant 1982The third or last model was in production from 1982 until the end of SFRY (1990), however, as previously mentioned, it was continued to be manufactured for Serbia and Montenegro by their factories as far as 2004, when they were finally discontinued and later, largely replaced (today used only by their conscripts). That model was recognizable only by combination of ten holes for laces like the previous one, but now combined with only eleven reinforcement screws (eight less than on previous models) on each sole, which were also triple now; heel was together a part of the last - third rubber sole, in previous models the heel part was the individual, fourth or last layer of sole. This was, as mentioned before, done only to achieve easier and thus, faster production, however, in the same time this also created a serious defect since the soles were now lacking crucial reinforcement due to the fact that eight crucial screws were removed, which naturally resulted in relatively easy and quick detaching of lower (rubber) sole from upper (wooden) ones, even after slighter use on harder terrain. Despite this drawback however, this model was, somewhat ironically, continued to be manufactured not just until the end of SFRY, but also for a long time even after the breakup, making it far the most common and produced model of YPA boots (22 years of production). Police version There was also a special model for NM (Narodna Milicija – People’s Militsiya). Early models were very similar to Army's first models; they had combination of twelve holes for laces and nineteen reinforcement screws, the only difference that tell them apart from Army models was the fact they they always lacked, that is, never featured markings (for size, production site and year of production) sewn inside, because the mentioned was the Army regulation for uniforms and equipment, the Militsiya ones had only size number engraved into the inside leather layer. Later models are easily tell apart from Army models, since they feature a combination of twelve holes for laces (like the first model for Army) and eleven reinforcement screws (like the Armys's third/last model) on the soles underneath, a combination in which Army models never existed. Only two countries that use this boots today are Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia. Boots can rarely be seen in Bosnia while in Serbia they are issued to conscripts and reservists. Though they are being largely replaced in favor of modern M-10 combat boots.

JNA YPA Yugoslav Peoples Army Boots

After the Second World War, the colonial powers of Europe entered a period of decline. Weakened by the years long conflict the empires grip on the African and Asian colonies loosened and under international pressure European armies pulled out of the overseas territories one by one. Egypt, which achieved its formal independence from United Kingdom in 1922 was ruled by monarchy which had close ties to the British commonwealth and British forces remained in the country throughout the first half of the 20th century. But as the Egyptian monarchy was overthrown in 1952 and republic was established, with Gamal Abdel Nasser as president the relationships between the two countries worsened.  In 1956 the western European countries announced withdrawal of their investments in Egypt due to Egypt’s lack of hostilities towards the Soviet Union, in response Egypt proclaimed that it will nationalize the Suez canal which was by that point under the control of the joint British-French company “Suez Canal Company”. The nationalization of the canal happened in July 1956. and by October Israel begun a land invasion of Sinai Peninsula followed by French and British paratroopers who landed on the Suez in the last ditch attempt to retain their global influence.  By the December of the same year, under pressure from the USSR and USA both France and UK were forced to withdraw from the Suez, however Israeli troops remained on the Sinai, refusing to pull out until March of 1957. In response to the growing ethnic tensions between Israeli troops stationed in Sinai and its Arabic population the United Nations sent a peacekeeping mission, for the first time in history, to ensure safety of the inhabitants of the Sinai Peninsula. One of the most influential nations which participated in the mission was Peoples Federative Republic of Yugoslavia which was among the first to call for the peace keeping mission in the region.  Even though this was the first international peacekeeping mission of Yugoslav state it was not the first for their people. After the Greco-Turkish war of 1897, multiple nations sent their soldiers to oversee the enforcement of peace on the island of Crete. The nations which armies participated in this were mostly great European powers such United Kingdom, France, Russia and Italy but among them small Balkan Principality of Montenegro sent their peacekeepers who did their duties on the island for 2 months. On Yugoslavia’s request to join the peacekeeping force Egypt responded that “Yugoslav participation is not acceptable but desirable”. Egypt also requested that Yugoslav contingent must be independent of others and that it would be appreciated if the members of it were Muslim and knew French and English language.  On the 14th of November 1956 a detachment of 44 men was sent to Sinai to report on the situation on the ground, once the command in Belgrade had a full picture the formation of the contingent could commence. The final formation consisted of Command (31 officers and nine non-commissioned officers). Command of the apartment (one officer, four non-commissioned officers and 24 soldiers). Two motor rifle companies, one motor-mechanized company, one each of engineering, communications and recoilless weapons companies, a technical supply company, a medical and reconnaissance platoon and a military police platoon. The detachment was practically an independent battalion of a special formation. The motorized rifle company had a command, a supply department, two motorized rifle platoons and one reconnaissance car platoon. Rifle platoons had three sections each, while scouts had four sections. Each company had five officers, 11 non-commissioned officers and 86 soldiers.  The moto-mechanized company had a command, a combat division, two motorized rifle platoons and two platoons of armored vehicles. The firing platoons were in triple formation, and the armored vehicle platoons were in quadruple formation. This company had six officers, 14 non-commissioned officers and 85 soldiers. The recoilless gun company had a command, a command section and two combat platoons with two sections. There were four officers, seven non-commissioned officers and 35 soldiers in it. The engineering company was specific because of the terrain itself and the previously unknown tasks: it had a command, a supply department, two pioneer platoons and a machine platoon. The pioneer platoons each had three sections, and the machine platoon had a section of bulldozers, cranes, and compressors with a staff of five officers, 12 non-commissioned officers and 72 soldiers. The signal company had a command, a supply department, a radio platoon and a telephone line platoon, with a total of five officers, 15 non-commissioned officers and 36 soldiers. The technical supply company had eight officers, 16 non-commissioned officers and 93 soldiers. The medical platoon had a commander, an assistant and two divisions, namely three officers, two non-commissioned officers and 19 soldiers. The military police platoon consisted of three sections with one officer, six non-commissioned officers and 20 soldiers, and the scout platoon had a platoon commander (officer), three non-commissioned officers and 17 soldiers, as well as three sections of scout cars. On the day of departure from the Zagreb garrison, together with the advance party that was already in Egypt, the total number was: 75 officers, 110 non-commissioned officers and 573 soldiers.  The commanding officer of the detachment was colonel Nikola Radošević and political commissar was colonel Branko Borojević. Even though the organization of the peacekeeping force had many problems in its process, as it was done for the first time in Yugoslavia, the contingent was ready in 5 days and on the 21st of November they set on their journey towards the Sinai. Equipment issued to the soldiers of the peacekeeping force was the best that Yugoslavia had in its arsenal at the time. The Yugoslavs were armed with 415 M-48 rifles, 29 M-53 machine guns, 160 PPŠ-41 automatic rifles and 270 TT M-33 pistols. A small number of anti-tank weapons (caliber 60 mm bazookas) and four US-made M-20 recoilless guns of 75 mm caliber were also brought, however the anti-tank weapons would be returned home after first rotation for they were found redundant. Motorized units operated with M3A1 cars and M-8 armored cars both of which were of American origin. GMC trucks were used the most (of which 46 were in use) alongside 35 Jeep Villys and 15 Dodge vehicles that were used for patrolling. In order to maintain a direct connection with the General Staff of the YPA, PCSCR 300 long-range radio devices were deployed on Sinai, and for communication within the detachment and coordination with the UNEF Command, a PCMK-2 type radio device was used. Radio communications between the commands were maintained using radio stations PCSCR-300 and PCANGRC-9. The telephone connection was supported by the MIP-10 switchboard and PTI-49 telephone sets. 12 kilometers of telephone cable were also taken from the country.  The Yugoslav force was to form a buffer zone between the British and Egyptian forces. The British intended to accommodate YPA forces in an abandoned hospital in the middle of the desert which the Yugoslavs refused and demanded another residence. Eventually the Yugoslav detachment settled in an abandoned camp by the name of El Balah by the Suez canal, which served as British camp pre WW2, then during the Second World War it was a camp for Australians and New Zealanders and once the war ended it was left in the hands of the Egyptians. On the 4th of December the detachment received an order to head eastwards towards the city of El Arish, the biggest on peninsula. Trip towards the city was long and hard due to the poor state of infrastructure that was destroyed during the military operations. On the 15th of January the YPA finally entered the city, from which the British and French forces retreated on 22nd of December, where they were met with cheers from the local population. Afterwards the detachment continued on route towards the demarcation line and the Gaza strip. This part of the trip was considerably easier due to the better quality of infrastructure. The YPA, however, never entered Gaza and was placed on the demarcation line between the Swedish and Indonesian forces. The detachment set up checkpoints on both lines of communication leading from the El Auja area. YPA have been assigned a rather complex task, to control the situation from the Mediterranean Sea to a line 20 kilometers south of El Qusaim, on a part of the 100-kilometer long demarcation line and corresponding security zones. The Yugoslavs remained on that position until the second of March 1957.  After initial troubles with the UNEF command the relations improved over the course of the operation, especially after the canadian General Burns was replaced with Indian general Gyani as the head of the operation. Relations with the Egyptians and the local population were excellent and remained so for the duration of the entire operation while the relations with Israelis were nonexistent for the Israel never recognized the UN mission.  Even though the YPA faced ambushes, riots and standoffs during the mission there were times of peace where the Yugoslav peacekeepers could enjoy some cultural and recreational activities such as football matches, movies, listening to radio, playing chess and socializing with soldiers form other detachments.  In the early 1967 the tensions between the Israel and the neighboring Arabian countries grew and already by the early May Israeli air force started bombing targets inside Arabian countries. In response to ever more obvious upcoming conflict, on the May 17th the Yugoslav government ordered a withdrawal of the peacekeeping force from Sinai which began on 19th of May. However the YPA did not manage to pullout in time and on June the 5th the 300 Yugoslav soldiers were caught in crossfire when Israeli army crossed the demarcation line and entered Sinai. One of the Israeli detachments broke into the Yugoslav camp and opened fire on the YPA peacekeepers who returned fire from their posts. During the fighting multiple Yugoslav vehicles were damaged or destroyed but miraculously no one was killed. Local Yugoslav commander Slavko Đurđević managed to contact the Israeli commander and request immediate cease of fire. The Israeli commander tried to force the YPA to lay down their weapons and surrender, a request which Slavko denied. According to Moshe Dayan's personal order from June 11, it was made possible for the detachment to be transported by Israeli buses through the zone of operations to the port of Ashdod. There they boarded the ship "Istra" and arrived in Rijeka via Cyprus, bringing the Yugoslav peacekeeping mission in Sinai to an end. Over the course of the mission Yugoslavia rotated 14 265 soldiers. The mission however didn’t go without losses and form 1956 till the 1967 YPA lost 2 officers and 6 soldiers. Throughout the mission 10 officers were injured along with 46 soldiers. The operation in Sinai was not the only peacekeeping mission that YPA took part in however it was the largest. The Yugoslav peacekeepers also joined the UN in Yemen (1963-1964), Iran-Iraq (1988-1991), Angola (1989-1991) and Namibia (1989-1990).Today the Serbian Armed Forces keep the tradition inherited form the YPA and are actively taking part in the peacekeeping missions in Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia, Mali and Central African Republic.

Yugoslav Forces In UN Peacekeeping Mission In Sinai

The Great War taught armies of the world many important lessons. Ineffectiveness of cavalry charges, importance of air force and growing necessity for helmets. Almost every single country entered the Great War without helmets, but all of them were quick to learn that simple fabric hats were not enough to protect the soldier’s head from shrapnel and explosions. Kingdom of Serbia, being overrun by the central powers in late 1915, had to rely on its allies to equip its army for continuation of the fight and so the first (protective) helmet Serbia got in its possession was French M-15 Adrian helmet. Adrian helmet was one of the best helmets in WWI with its incredible protection from explosion blasts due to its shape. The helmets were originally painted in the shade of blue (blue horizon), but they were repainted in khaki (mustard) color, which was more suitable for the environment of the dry Salonika front terrain. The helmets were modified with the Serbian coat of arms cockade, a double-headed crowned eagle, which was attached to the front side. This helmet was also main helmet of new Royal Yugoslav army for a short period of time after the First World War, being the first helmet to be in use of Yugoslav army. The royal army also used captured Austro-Hungarian and German helmets with Yugoslav emblems and coats of arms put on them but they were quickly replaced. In second half of 1920s Yugoslavia replaced all M-15 and old central power’s helmets with new and improved M-1926, while the old ones were given to motorized troops and firefighters. New helmet was pretty similar to the old one however it featured slightly larger visor and was better fitted on the head due to improved straps and head bands. In the late 30s however Yugoslavia once again showed the desire to equip its troops with better helmets. At the time Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were in good relations and had good military cooperation which permitted Yugoslavia to purchase a license for a helmet, and so in 1937 Yugoslavia started production of M-37 helmet (also known as Čačak, by the town it was manufactured in). Helmet was based on Czech Přilba vz. 32 helmet however it did feature some differences and improvements, like for example the liner attachment rivets, and a different color. The helmet is noted for its simplistic design compared to other helmets of its time, being described as a distinct egg shape and was painted olive-green, which would later become a basic color for the military equipment used by the Yugoslav People’s Army. After Kingdom of Yugoslavia lost the April war to the Germans helmets used by the Yugoslav army were distributed to all newly formed collaborationist units. The Čačak helmets were used by Serbian state guard (Srpska državna straža), the armed formations of the quisling government in Serbia, Russian Protective Corps, a German allied unit consisted of Russian emigrants from Russian civil war, and by the Serbian Volunteer Corps (Serbische Freiwilligen-Korps), a collaborationist, anti-partisan formation under the command of Dimitrije Ljotić. However after the fall of the fascist Italy in 1943 the Corps received old Italian uniforms including Italian M-33 helmet used in Italian army from 1934 all the way to 1990. Helmet distinguished from other helmets of its time by 3 ventilation holes, 2 on its sides and 1 on its read. Ustaše forces of Independent State of Croatia (German puppet state) also used Čačak and Adrian helmets with U emblem on its front, mostly just sprayed or painted there but in some cases featuring a metal ornament. However most of Croatian forces used variations of German helmets. From the obsolete M-16 and M-17, used by imperial German forces in WWI, to the standard Stahlhelm M-35/40/42 of the Third Reich only differing from German ones by Croatian coats of arms on its sides and or U on its front. Italian M-33 helmets were also used by the Independent State of Croatia. Meanwhile resistance members of Yugoslavian communist partisans used whatever helmets that were at their disposal at the time, only distinguishing from everyone else by five winged red star. After the war ended new Yugoslavian people’s army (YPA) was left with pretty large stockpiles of many different helmets. Old royal Yugoslav ones, Italian M-33, Bulgarian M-36 helmets made to resemble German ones and German M-35/40/42 helmets that were the majority of the stockpile. Through first decade after the war all of these helmets were in use, all featuring a five winged red star on their front. As time was passing German helmets were slowly becoming a standard, leaving only Čačak helmets to remain in service in cavalry and officer corps, rest of helmets were put out of service. During the 1950s, standard M35/40/42 German helmets were modified by cutting their lower ear parts, making them similar to M-38 German paratrooper helmets. The main reasons for his modification were ideological, YPA did not want to associate itself with it’s wartime enemies. This modification was standard helmet all up to 1959 when a new standard helmet , M-59, was introduced. The JUŠ M-59 (Serbian: Jugoslovenski Univerzalni Šlem Model 1959, meaning; Yugoslavian Universal Helmet) was the standard combat helmet, issued to every member of the Yugoslav Armed Forces (whether conscript, reservist, NCO or officer) of almost every single branch of the Yugoslav People’s Army. The helmet was pretty unique and differed from all other helmets of eastern bloc. Helmet’s design reminds of Spanish M-1934 helmet which was itself built in the image of German stahlhelm, although Yugoslavian M-59 featured greatly reduced lower ear part. It was rather simple piece of equipment, it was single-layer steel helmet cause of which it offered less protection than two-layered helmets, painted in standard YPA olive-green color with a red star on it front. Although it was less protective it could still effectively shield a soldiers head from shrapnel and low caliber ammunition but in compensation it weighted only 1350g making it very comfortable to wear. Even though standard color was olive-green there were blue variants given to the air force and people’s militsya (Narodna Milicija-Yugoslav police). In 1985 modifications have been made on the helmet, creating new JUŠ M-59/85 helmet. The shell of the helmet was reshaped with back part bending upwards so it would be more comfortable for soldiers who would be sitting or crouching, suspension system was also improved featuring new and stronger materials. Production of this helmet stopped in 1989 when new M-89 was created, this was first Yugoslav helmet made of kevlar. By its design, the M-89 combat helmet was exactly the same as its predecessor M-59/85 with only material changed from one piece steel to two layered kevlar - exactly due to which it featured distinctive seven screws, three at each side and one at the front, clearly visible, in order for layers to be properly nailed to each other. Suspension system was also roughly copied from M*59/85. Red star featured on front of helmets in the past was now removed however, as it was realized that it only makes people an easier target. Unlike its design, M-89 featured many improvements over the older versions; it was way lighter than previous helmet yet offered much better protection against some bigger pistol calibers but especially against shrapnel and explosions. On the Yugoslavian misfortune this helmet started its production way too late as just two years after it was introduced in the army Yugoslavia collapsed into a civil war and helmet never got a chance to be introduced in the army properly. Only factory in the country that manufactured these helmets was located in North Macedonia near the town of Prilep, and so when Macedonian left Yugoslavia YPA (and later on Yugoslav Army/YA) was left with limited amounts of these helmets. It was decided that the helmets would be given to Militsya and thus they were painted dark blue. Meanwhile M-59/85 started its production again in 1991. M-59/85 was the main combat helmet of all warring sides in the Yugoslav wars. Armed forces of Bosnia and Croatia used to paint over the red star on the front or cover it with a sticker featuring their coat of arms, emblem or insignia. YPA forces used the original helmets until 1992 when they started putting stickers with Yugoslav flag or in some instances VJ (Vojska Jugoslavije/Yugoslav Army) logo over the star. Meanwhile Republic of Serbian Krajina and Republic of Srpska used to cover the star with Serbian tricolor flag stickers. At the very beginning of the conflict many of the voluntary brigades and paramilitary groups didn’t have access to M-59/85 helmets because army didn’t want to give it to them, thus they were resorted to using older helmets such as different versions of stalhelm, given to them by the territorial defense. However as the war picked up its pace the paramilitary groups got top gear just like the rest of the army. When the Kosovo war begun in 1998 Yugoslav army started introducing new helmet, M-97. It was manufactured by Mile Dragić and it was a copy, by its shape, design and suspension system, of a French F-2 helmet. By its shape the helmet reminds of German Stalhem with ear part going pretty low, material of which the helmet is built is kevlar just like the rest of the modern helmets in the world. When the war started this helmet was scarce among the personnel, possessed only by the officers or special units. As for the KLA, they used M-59/85 they were able to capture from the Yugoslav army, just covering Yugoslav insignia with Albanian eagle sticker, but most of their men fought without a head protection. Today Serbian army (direct successor to the Yugoslavian armed forces) uses 3 types of helmets in its military and police; M-97 presents the main combat helmet of the army used by the infantry, motorized, mechanized and armored units. Artillery and anti-air defense units still use M-59/85 Helmets while the special army and police units use SWAT helmets.

Evolution Of Yugoslavian/Serbian Helmets

Throughout the cold war there was but a handful of countries that could manufacture submarines, many of these countries were European nations with developed industry such as Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Sweden and Netherlands. However among them was one unlikely member of the group, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). Unlike the rest of the countries mentioned, Yugoslavia never had a seafaring history or tradition. Its coastal republics such as Croatia, Montenegro,Slovenia never had states of their own all up until the modern era and Serbia, which had a small navy during the medieval ages, was landlocked for so long that any naval traditions it might have had were lost over time. After the Great War all south Slavic nations (except for Bulgaria) united in Yugoslavia and the young kingdom now had a long coastline that needed protection. While the Kingdom of Yugoslavia did have a royal navy it was nothing outstanding, featuring one large destroyer “Dubrovnik”, which was the flagship of the navy, 3 smaller destroyers of the Belgrade class, 4 submarines and 10 motor torpedo boats. Two of the Belgrade class destroyers and most of the torpedo boats were built in Yugoslav shipyards while the “Dubrovnik” and submarines were provided by Britain and France. During the April War (Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941) all Yugoslav surface vessels were captured by Italy while the submarine flotilla managed to escape to Egypt and join the British forces. After the Second World War communists took power in Yugoslavia and formed Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia. This new Yugoslavia was initially close to other communist countries of the eastern bloc but in 1948 Yugoslav leader Tito and Soviet ruler Stalin parted ways and Yugoslavia became a neutral country in the heart of Europe. Since Yugoslavia had no allies it could rely on in the times of war it sought to rapidly develop its armed forces in order to effectively protect its land, skies and of course its long coast. To defend such a large aquatory Yugoslavia required a large and modern navy. After the war Yugoslav War Navy (YWN) mostly operated Italian and German ships and submarines that were either captured or given as compensation. As 40s ended and 50s started Yugoslavia bought many Allied WW2 era ships, but it simultaneously developed its own ship building capabilities, building up on the already existing pre-war shipyards. By the late 50s Yugoslavia was not just able to manufacture ships but submarines as well, placing itself among the rare countries with such capabilities. First submarines Yugoslavia built were Sutjeska and Neretva of Sutjeska class. Sutjeska class submarines were diesel-electric powered and were built in Uljanik Shipyard in Pula, modern day Croatia. The Subs were of original Yugoslav design, armed with 6 x 533mm torpedo tubes and could reach the speed of 14 knots on surface and 9 knots underwater. Both were equipped with soviet sonars. Sutjeska was laid down in 1957, launched in 1958 and commissioned in 1960. Neretva was laid down on the same date, was launched in 1958 and commissioned in 1962. Both vessels were refit with modern sonars in 1970 but by 1980 both were put out of use due to obsolescence. Second class of Yugoslav domestic submarines was Heroj class which was 3 ships strong and was commissioned in late 60s and early 70s. Just like the Sutjeska class subs the vessels of Heroj class were also featured diesel-electric engines but they featured many improvements that made them much more competent subs than their predecessors. The ships of Heroj class were built in Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata (shipyard for special objects) in Split. Even though they were smaller in size than the previous class they could achieve larger speed on the surface and now had 4 bow facing torpedo tubes that could also be used for mine laying. They featured a new streamlined hull design and could dive at the depth of 210 meters. 3 subs were built in this class and those were Heroj (commissioned in 1968), Junak (1969) and Uskok (1970). When war in Croatia started all of these subs were evacuated from Croatian ports and were relocated to bases in Montenegro. They remained in service of the new SR Yugoslav Navy until the late 90s when they were scrapped. Only remaining sub is Heroj which was decommissioned in 2004 and then restored. Today it lays in Porto Montenegro Museum. Sava was third and by far the most advanced class of submarines that Yugoslavia ever produced. This class consisted of 2 ships, Sava and Drava, that were built in Split and commissioned in late 70s and early 80s. The subs were built as a replacement for Sutjeska submarines which were by that time obsolete. Sava class vessels were faster than any subs SFRY built before, they could achieve speeds of up to 16.5 knots under water, they could also dive deeper than Heroj submarines, down to 300 meters. They were armed with 533mm torpedoes and had mine laying capabilities. Just like Submarines of Heroj class these were also relocated from Croatia to Montenegro when the Yugoslav wars started and continued to serve in the Navy of SRY. Sava which was commissioned in 1978 was decommissioned in 2002 and Drava had a shorter service time, being commissioned in 1982 and decommissioned in 1999. After Montenegro declared independence from Yugoslavia in 2006 and subsequently inherited the navy, subs were either sold to scrap or to museums as exhibits. During the mid 80s YWN shifted its resources from constructing conventional submarines to different projects. There were talks and plans for building a so-called “rocket submarine” however plans were never realized and information about this project are not numerous and are pretty vague. Project which Yugoslav navy realized, however, were midget-subs that were manufactured in two classes from mid 80s till the breakup of the country. Una class midget subs were constructed from 1985 to 1989. They were small in size, not even 20 meters long. Ships were designed to operate in shallow water, around 10 meters below the sea level. Purpose of the subs was to carry 4-6 commandos and transport them through shallow enemy coastal water, as well as laying mines in waters inaccessible to larger submarines. Six vessels of this class were built throughout the 80s, Tisa, Una, Zeta, Soča, Kupa and Vardar. Ownership of all of the subs went to Montenegro after the Breakup of Yugoslavia. Most of the subs were decommissioned and sold in scarp during the mid 2000s, couple remain in museums. YWN also operated even smaller subs, or swimmer delivery vehicles (SDV) of Mala class. These SDVs could transport 2 commandos at the depth of 10-60 meters and could travel at the speed of 4.4 knots. It is not known how many of this vessels was manufactured but there are records of these subs being exported to Sweden and Syria. When the war in Croatia broke out most of these subs were relocated to Montenegro like the majority of the Yugoslav navy. Croatia today operates two of these SDVs but it isn’t clear if those were captured form the YWN or were manufactured after the war.

Yugoslav Submarine Industry

Ever since the tank first appeared on the battlefields of the western theater in the First World War it was clear that the future of warfare will see heavy usage of such machines and by the Second World War it became the main force that pushed fronts in the war. Serbia, that now formed new Kingdom of Serbs Croats and Slovenes, suffered greatly in the Great War and its head of the army knew the importance of having a modern and well equipped army and so it sought to arm the young kingdom with tanks in hopes of repelling any possible future invaders. However the Kingdom of SCS, or Yugoslavia as it was later renamed to, had very limited industrial capabilities and was in no position to manufacture tanks on its own. Thus it relied on import of foreign vehicles, mostly from France. By the time the Second World War broke out Army of Kingdom of Yugoslavia was armed with 110 tanks deployed in 2 tank battalions. The Second tank battalion numbered some 54 French Renault R-35 tanks which were fairly modern at the time, being manufactured in 1935, supported by 8 Czechoslovakian Škoda T-32 tankettes. The First tank battalion however was operating with very old and outdated Renault TF-17 tanks which date back from the World War 1 (1917). On the April 6th 1941 Third Reich with axis powers attacked Yugoslavia. The south Slavic kingdom was all but unprepared for the war, it was undermanned and undersupplied, with outdated weaponry and low moral. In 12 days the entire Yugoslav front collapsed and the army was overrun, the kingdoms tanks did not see much action during the war and the ones that did were swiftly and easily destroyed by the much more capable and modern German tanks driven by much more experienced crews. After the capitulation all the remaining Yugoslav tanks were incorporated in the armies of the axis powers. Even though the Yugoslav government surrendered to the German forces the people did not wish to live under their rule and it wasn’t long before resistance groups rose up against the Nazi occupiers. Two largest resistance groups that took up arms against the Germans were royalist chetniks and communist partisans, who for the first few months worked together in their fight against the common enemy. However as time went on their differences started to pose more problems and they eventually parted ways. Throughout 1941 and 1942 the western allies supported chetniks with guns and small arms but by 1943 it started to be apparent that the partisans are the dominant resistance force in the region and thus western supplies slowly stopped arriving to the chetniks as those for the partisans grew. In the July of 1944 the British supplied the Yugoslav partisans with some 56 M3A1 and M3A3 Stuart light tanks with which partisans formed the First Tank Brigade. This brigade saw extensive action against the Axis forces in the summer of 1944 but due to the Stuarts small gun and weak armor the brigade suffered heavy losses and the British evacuated the remaining tanks to the island of Vis off to the coast of Yugoslavia. On November of 3rd 1944 Yugoslav partisans successfully pushed the German forces out of the city of Šid which used to be a large shipyard before the war. Using the machinery that wasn’t destroyed by the retreating Germans partisans started repairing and modifying their Stuarts. In need of higher firepower the communist freedom fighters made two different versions of Stuart tanks, one with German 2 cm flakveirling anti-aircraft gun and other version was armed with 7.5 cm PaK-40 anti-tank gun. This brigade was engaged in battle for Trieste where it fought against the German SS Polizei Regiment 10 Armed with captured soviet T-34-76 tanks of which at least one was destroyed by the modified PaK Stuart. Another tank which Yugoslav partisans received in large numbers during the World War 2 was soviet T-34 tanks. Once Soviet forces reached Serbia they started supplying partisans with T-34-85 tanks, combining them with T-34-76 tanks that partisans captured from the Germans the 2nd tank brigade was formed and trained in the Soviet Union. This brigade participated in the battles on the Syrmian front against the retreating German forces helped by Croatian Ustaše. Due to the poor coordination the brigade suffered unnecessary losses. After the war new Federative People’s Republic of Yugoslavia proceeded with purchasing tanks form the Soviet Union for its army and by late 40s it numbered around 2000 T-34s. In 1948, however Yugoslav People’s Army (YPA) was met with a serious problem. 1948 marked a year where Yugoslavia and Soviet Union parted ways in a famous Tito-Stalin split. Yugoslavia managed to achieve its political independence from the Soviets but its army still heavily relied on the supplies from the Moscow, especially regarding tanks, which were now impossible to receive. Combined with the fact that the Stuart tanks were put out of service in 1949 due to their obsolescence put the Yugoslav tank forces in a dire situation. The solution Yugoslav experts came up with was creation and manufacturing of a domestic tank and so during 1948 a special commission was formed to discuss characteristics of this new vehicle named “Type A”. It was soon realized that, even though Yugoslavia had economical capabilities of manufacturing parts for the T-34, it could not manufacture a brand new tank,ž due to the poor economic state caused by the damage inflicted during the war. Committee thus decided that the “Type A” will instead be a modification of T-34, with thicker armor, larger turret and stronger gun. Task of building this machine was given to 3 factories in the country, Petar Drapšin from Mladenovac, Đuro Đaković  from Slavonski Brod and Institut 11 from Kragujevac. By 1950 five prototypes were built, tested and showed on a parade on the May 1st 1950 in Belgrade but the vehicles were prone to malfunction, were expensive to build and took too much time to be built. Final nail in the coffin of the Type A was the improvement of  relations between FPRY and USA meaning that United States were now willing to sell military hardware to Yugoslavia, including tanks, thus rendering development of a domestic tank unneeded.On 14th of November 1951 Yugoslavia was included into the MDAP (Military Defense Aid Program) and between 1951 and 1958 Yugoslavia will receive around 2200 American vehicles of all types including 599 Sherman M4A3E4 main battle tanks.  These tanks alongside T-34s became the main armored fighting force of the FPRY. As late 50s rolled in the aging of Shermans started to show, they could no longer penetrate modern tanks and their armor was ineffective, in order to extend the operational lifetime of the tank Yugoslav engineers started developing a modified version of the Shrman known as SO-122. In order to increase its firepower engineers installed a 122 mm gun on it and to increase its speed it was equipped with V3 soviet engine. The prototype didn’t prove to be quite successful, the 3 meters long gun rendered the tank useless in urban combat and tight forests and even though that the speed was increased with the new engine the acceleration was reduced. In the mid 60s, as the relations with the Soviet Union and eastern bloc warmed up once again, the need for improved Sherman vanished and the project was canceled in 1966. Since nineteen sixties Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia was purchasing more and more soviet MBTs, mostly T-54s and T-55s which gradually replaced Shermans and T-34s as the countries main tanks. Yugoslavia still continued its cooperation with USA as well, obtaining some 200 Patton tanks through the 60s and 70s. In early 70s a new Soviet MBT, T-72, entered the scene and it quickly drew attention of the YPA. Yugoslavia Bought around 70 T-72 tanks but they were not able to obtain a license for it as not even the nations of the Warsaw pact were allowed to purchase it in the first few years after it entered the service in the red army. In 1978 Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito visited the Soviet Union and managed to convince Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev, to sell him a license for the tank even though the Soviet ministry of defense was strongly opposed. In order to produce the tank Yugoslavia tasked over 200 companies from all 6 of its republic to manufacture different components for the vehicle with all being assembled in Đuro Đaković in Croatia. The first 10 prototypes were finished in 1984 and the tank entered the serial production in 1985 with its new name M-84 (Model 1984). Tank was quite similar to the T-72 with few minor changes such as difference in materials used. M-84 also used stronger engine than the T-72 allowing it to go faster (38.8 liter V-12 multi-fuel engine). M-84 also had a couple variations such as M-84A with increased armor protection and mobility and M-84AB/ABK which was made exclusively for Kuwait which wished to purchase some 215 tanks form SFRY. At the end of the Cold War the Yugoslav tank forces operated: 440 M-8473 T-721600 T-55Around 200 M-47 Patton and200 T-34-85 (in active service with more in reserve). As the conflict between the USSR and USA ended and the eastern bloc collapsed it did not take long for Yugoslavia to start breaking apart as well. The republics that formed Yugoslavia started leaving one by one and entering civil wars of their own as YPA tried to prevent the breakaways. The T-55 bore the brunt of the war as all the armies of the newly created republics used it in large quantities. Armies were often seen using old WW2 vehicles such as T-34 tanks or tank destroyers in large numbers due to their quantity and accessibility. Even though the YPA had an overwhelming numerical superiority at the start of the war they used the tanks more as a self-propelled cannon for infantry support rather than an armored fist that would break through enemy lines. After the Yugoslav People’s Army was forced to retreat out of the Bosnia and Croatia by the UN, and subsequently left large numbers of its military hardware to the armies of Serbian Krajina and Republic of Srpska, the unconventional use of the tanks continued throughout the war. This however didn’t mean that there were not instances of tank on tank battles. In the early stages of the war in 1991 a group of several Croatian T-55 tanks and at least 1 M-84 frontally assaulted dug in YPA M-84s and after suffering several T-55s lost the Croatians retreated. During the operation “Corridor 92” of the Army of Republic of Srpska, a Croatian M-84 engaged a Serbian T-55 and successfully destroyed it. Due to the many tanks being captured by Bosnian and Croatian forces and many more sent to the armies of Serb republics the new Yugoslav Army (YA) of the Federative Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) was left with reduced number of tanks. It also lost its ability to manufacture tanks due to the many factories which made components for the tanks, including Đuro Đaković which assembled tanks was no longer within its borders.  The YA operated: 240 M-8463 T-72727 T-55 and424 T-34 tanks. The conflicts in the Balkans still haven’t ended however as in 1998 the ethnic tensions in the Serbia’s southern autonomous province of Kosovo and Metohija flared up as the Albanian Terrorist organization (Kosovo Liberation Army/KLA) increased its attacks on the Serbian police, Yugoslav army and the civilian population. In response to this threat the YA was sent to Kosovo to eliminate the threat. In early 1999 NATO intervened on the behalf of the KLA, begging the operation “Allied force” on the 24th of March. The objective of the operation was to cripple the Yugoslav army. Even though the Yugoslav armored units were one of the primary targets of NATO, they pulled out of Kosovo after 78 days of bombing with only 14 tanks lost (9 M-84s and 5 T-55s). This was due to the incredible ingenuity of the Serbian soldiers who frequently crafted decoys that NATO jets would strike instead. After a tank was struck by the Atlantic alliance Serbs were often seen using the same struck tanks, placing them in open areas, making the alliance strike the same tank 2 or even 3 times. After 2006 when Montenegro declared its independence from the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro the newly created Army of Serbia (AS) went through extensive reforms. The size of the army was drastically reduced from 3 armies to 4 brigades and with it the number of tanks was also lowered. Many T-72 tanks were put out of active service along with the all T-55 tanks being stored and rendered obsolete. For a long time nothing much changed in the Serbian army but the second half of 2010s saw significant rearmament projects in Serbia. In 2020 the Serbian army received a contingent of 30 T-72B1MS tanks as a donation from Russian Federation, at the time this tanks were the most modern tanks in the all ex-Yugoslav republics. Even though Serbia cannot produce tanks of its own it possesses industrial capabilities of modernizing its tanks and so it plans on modernizing its M-84 tanks to the M-84MS1/MS2 versions which have better protection, are more precise, have stronger engines and better optics. First contingent of 26 of these tanks is expected in early 2024. The Serbian command also repaired 100 T-55 tanks and dedicated them for the active reserve in the army in case of a war. Today Serbian army operates:  212 M-8413 T-7230 T-72B1MS100 T-55 (reserve)

Evolution Of Serbian/Yugoslavian Armored Units 

During the First World War it became apparent that the majority of casualties were coming from artillery, explosions and shrapnel as opposed to bullets. In most European armies of that period a hand grenade was a common piece of weaponry carried by soldiers and while it had increased a firepower of a single soldier it had a significant flaw, the range at which the explosive could be thrown heavily depended on the strength and the skill of the wielder. To overcome this issue a rifle launched grenade was introduced in mass. First prototypes of rifle grenades appeared as early as 18th century when cup-shaped dischargers were fitted to the barrels of flintlock muskets, with the grenades propelled by the force of a blank cartridge. In the wars of the early 20th century some forms of rifle grenades were also used, for example in the Russo-Japanese war of 1905. However the weapon was standardized during the Great War. Records of usage of rifle grenades in the Balkans during the Great War are few and far between, Kingdom of Serbia, with its limited resources, showed no interest in developing or acquiring such a weapon. After the First World War the newly created Kingdom of Yugoslavia was more focused on rebuilding the destroyed country and dealing with internal social and ethnic problems. Regardless throughout the interwar period the economy of the young Kingdom grew and weapons industry was developed, Yugoslavia was manufacturing its own guns, gas masks and even aircraft but the rifle grenade still didn’t seem to catch the interest of Yugoslav army officials. Only after the Second World War did the rifle grenade make its way to the armed forces of Yugoslavia.  As the dust settled the south Slavic state was now under the rule of the communist leader Josip Broz Tito who sought to build up a large, strong, modern and self-sustaining army that will withstand any invasion from abroad, thus the priority of economic development was put on the military industry. Already by 1960 the new Socialist Yugoslavia was manufacturing its own semi-automatic rifles, Zastava M-59/66 “papovka”, and all the complementary gear that went with it which this time included the rifle grenades.  In 1960 the Yugoslav engineers developed two rifle grenade types both named M-60. The M-60 AP was an anti-personnel rifle grenade that heavily resembled the French M-52 rifle grenade, it is not clear whether the Yugoslavs copied it or simply took inspiration from it. The other one was M-60 AT (anti-tank) which also bore resemblance to another French rifle grenade, STRIM 65. Theoretically this grenade was able to penetrate up to 200mm of armor. However records from the Yugoslav wars say that the combatants almost never used the AT grenades for their intended purpose, they rather served as larger, more destructive anti-personnel grenade. Both grenades were propelled by being mounted atop a rifle's barrel, and being launched by a blank cartridge. In 1962 the Yugoslav Military-technical institute developed two new rifle grenades: M-62 smoke grenade and M-62 illumination grenade.  All of these grenades remained in use after the Zastava M-70 assault rifle was introduced in the YPA (Yugoslav People’s Army) however while the grenades could be mounted on M-59 without any attachments M-70 required a 22 mm grenade launching adapter. In addition 2 versions of these grenades were made for training named M-66 (For papovka) and M-68 (For M-70). These “school” grenades, as they were referred to in Yugoslavia, were made mostly out of rubber but they had the same weight and shape as the live grenades.   The M60 rifle grenades were used in many conflicts around the globe as many African and some Asian countries used to purchase small arms from Yugoslavia in large numbers due to their low prices compared to the American or even Soviet firearms. The conflict in which these grenades were used the most was, of course, Yugoslav civil war in which all warring sides had large stockpiles of grenades, thus allowing them to extensively use them.

Rifle Grenades 

1943 is the year when the tide of the Second World War turned and the war headed south for the Axis powers. As the Japanese empire was being pushed back in the pacific by the USA, German offensive in USSR was all but stopped and Wehrmacht was all but shattered after the battle for Stalingrad and subsequent Soviet counter-offensive and the Axis powers lost the war in the African theater. Germany’s allies saw that the defeat was imminent and they started searching for a way to leave the conflict, for Italy an opportunity showed itself after the Allied operation husky – massive Anglo-American landings on Italian soil. As Axis forces were defeated on island of Sicily and the Allied troops started pushing up the Apennine peninsula Italy overthrew its fascist dictator Benito Mussolini switched sides. When the words of Italian surrender reached the German command an order was issued to disarm the Italian armed forces. From the Italian mainland to the occupied Greek islands, Germans started imprisoning and on some occasions executing their former allies. The 1st Taurinense division, Italian division specialized in mountain warfare which was stationed in the town of Nikšić in Montenegro - occupied Yugoslavia, attempted to reach the Adriatic coast and escape to liberated parts of Italy but was intercepted by the Germans before it could reach it, roughly half of the division was captured and disarmed while the rest managed to flee. Not being devoted to the fascist cause, the Italians decided to join the Yugoslav communist partisans who were waging guerilla war on the Axis powers ever since the country was occupied in the April of 1941. The Italians were quickly accepted in the ranks of the YPLA (Yugoslav People’s Liberation Army) and out of the remnants of Taurinense division the partisans formed two Yugoslav-Italian brigades, Aosta brigade formed on 11th of October and 2nd Italian partisan brigade formed on 19th of October. Both brigades numbered around 800 Italian fighters deployed in 4 battalions. In the meantime 19th Italian infantry division Venezia, which was situated deep in Montenegro in the town of Berane, far from the shore, did not attempt to escape but decided to fight alongside Yugoslav people from the start. The Italians were at first indecisive about which faction should they join, royalist chetniks or communist partisans, but after a meeting with local partisan leader, Peko Dapčević, it was decided that the division will become a part of YPLA which it did on 10th of October.  On 2nd of December 1943, in the town of Plevlja, following the order of which came from the headquarters of the 2nd Shock Corps of the YPLA, all Italian formations fighting for partisans were merged and the Garibaldi division was formed. The division numbered 5000 fighters deployed into 4 brigades under the command of 2nd Shock Corps. Commander of the Italian division was General Oxilia, who was previously commander of the Venezia division. Even before the brigade managed to organize the German troops attacked Plevlja which forced Yugoslav and Italian partisans into a winter retreat towards Mojkovac. During the retreat Italian fighters showed great bravery in slowing down the forces of the Third Reich. By the 10th of December the German offensive ended and the Garibaldi division was instantly tasked with sabotaging the Nazi lines. During the entire winter of 1943/44 the Italian partisans were heavily engaged in combat with Wehrmacht, Chetniks and Muslim forces, this led to massive casualties among the Italian ranks and in the February of 1944 the entire 3rd brigade of the Garibaldi division had to be erased, with 4th being renamed into 3rd to take its place. Another threat which actually took more Italian lives than the Axis forces was lung disease. Hardest fighting days for the Garibaldi division, as well as entire 2nd Shock Corps came in July 1944 when German forces launched operation Draufgänger which sought to destroy the YPLA forces which were preparing to cross the river Lim from Montenegro into Serbia. The attack was carried out by the 21st and elements of 7th SS divisions. The battle ended by the 1st of August with Yugoslav victory. Partisans at first commenced an evasive maneuver to avoid direct battle with the hardened SS soldiers. By the 8th day of the offensive Yugoslav forces managed to encircle the main elements of the SS but were unable to annihilate the pocket and the Germans broke out of it. Germans planned another attack on the Yugoslavs in this region, however the attack never took place as the first mountain division of the Wehrmacht, which was to help the SS, had to be transferred to Eastern Serbia due to the unfavorable developments in Romania. Italian soldiers from the Garibaldi division played a large role in this battle, seeing some of the heaviest fights in the campaign. In late August, alongside other Yugoslav formations, the Italian division advanced into Herzegovina and fought against the Chetnik elements which operated in the region. Even though the casualties were, once again, high the Garibaldi division emerged victorious in the battle.  On the 18th of December, elements of Garibaldi division liberated the city of Podgorica together with partisans of the YPLA. After this the Italians were transported to the port city of Dubrovnik where, on the 8th of March, they embarked on ships and sailed towards Sicily where they spent the rest of the war. To commemorate the bravery and selflessness that the Italian soldiers displayed in protection of Yugoslav people and Yugoslav freedom a monument was erected in the town of Mrzovići in north Montenegro in 1983.

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